Resource intensive building design strategies (e.g. Moreover, some researchers have argued that high insulation may have adverse effects during summer in certain climate conditions (Stazi et al. However, what is often overlooked is the increased embodied energy and carbon of many building materials, including synthetic insulation products – mineral wool and plastic foams (Giesekam et al. It is generally recognized that the operational energy performance of both new and existing buildings will be improved dramatically through the use of more insulation. Recent changes in building regulations (such as Part L in the UK, and European directives such as the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (2010/31/EU), and the Energy Efficiency Directive (2012/27/EU)) have promoted the use of more insulation materials and higher air-tightness of buildings (Jelle Citation2011 Xing, Hewitt, and Griffiths Citation2011). Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) approaches have been developed as more affordable building wall solutions (Xing, Hewitt, and Griffiths Citation2011). Recently, building envelopes have been used to generate energy. In 1981, Davies proposed the concept of a ‘polyvalent wall’ with multiple layers of glass materials which can generate enough energy for the building (Davies Citation1981). Timber structures have also entered a new era utilizing modern manufacture methods such as glue lamination and cross-laminated timber (CLT) to allow new designs, long spans and tall timber buildings (Bjertnaes and Malo Citation2014 Epp Citation2016). For example, the change to hydraulic lime in Portland cement in the eighteenth century increased industrial efficiency of production (compared to Roman lime or gypsum alkali cements), a wider range of aggregate is used depending on application, and the use of steel reinforced concrete to increase tensile and bending performance of the material has greatly extended the usefulness of concrete (Morgan Citation1977). Some materials have come into new eras, for example, while the Romans used cement to make concrete, and to achieve radical new structures such as domes, arches and vaults modern Portland cement differs materially in several ways. However modern building envelopes have utilized iron and steel over the last century, and modified glass over the last few decades. Vernacular building envelopes relied on local resources such as earth, timber, bamboo or stones. It plays a dominant role in the exchange of heat and fresh air, provides views and daylight, and protects the indoor environment and occupants against extremes of temperature, solar radiation, water and wind. The building envelope has been a significant element of human settlements since the rise of civilization. Key features of cell walls with the potential to inform the development of design principles of biological and living building envelopes are identified and discussed. Plant cell walls are compared to building envelopes. In this article, we call for a systemic approach for the development of innovative biological and living building envelopes. It is considered timely to re-examine opportunities to learn from nature, including in the light of recent understanding of how plant form and function are determined at the cellular levels. However, the diversity of form and function in biological organisms and therefore potential applications for biomimicry, requires a holistic approach spanning biology, materials science and architecture. Biomimicry is proposed as one approach to create buildings which are resilient to a changing climate, embedded in wider ecological systems, energy efficient and waste free. However, growing concern over the embodied energy and carbon as well as resource depletion, is beginning to impact on the design and implementation of existing and novel building envelope technologies. A number of innovations in building envelope technologies have been implemented recently, for example, to improve insulation and air tightness to reduce energy consumption.
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